In recent years, new cohorts of emerging scholars have earned their doctoral degrees in Tangutology. This unique civilization, which lasted for the short and specific period from 1038–1227, is now recognized as a critical bridge between Buddhism in Tibet and Buddhism in China during an era of critical upheaval and transition—that is, during the Northern Song dynasty and the eventual Mongol conquests. Thanks to these emerging scholars and advances in technology, translations, and archeological research, Tangutology has largely been demystified and is now entering a golden period of interdisciplinary research.
One of these new academics is Dr. Zhouyang Ma, who has used his mastery of Tibetan to learn Tangut—he urges that if one has learned Tibetan, Tangut is relatively easy despite its intimidating logography, which is even more complex than Chinese. I spoke to him about the Buddhist interactions between Tibet and the Tanguts during the 12th–13th centuries, and this is one such context where we can rapidly understand why Tangut Studies matters.
He is currently a postdoctoral research fellow at the Institute for the Cultural and Intellectual History of Asia, Austrian Academy of Sciences. He holds a PhD in Inner Asian and Altaic Studies from Harvard University (2023) and an MA degree in East Asian Languages and Cultures from Columbia University (2016). He has contributed articles to academic journals, including the Journal of Indian Philosophy, Journal of the American Oriental Society, Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, and China Tibetology.
BDG: You recently participated in the AAS’s first Tangut panel. Was it indicative of a growing recognition that Tangut Buddhist Studies is more important than previously recognized?
Zhouyang Ma: I would say the logic here works in reverse. The panel was not so much a sign that Tangut Buddhist Studies is now seen as more important, but rather a result of how the field has been evolving over the past decade. A new generation of scholars has emerged with two notable characteristics: first, they no longer approach Tangut culture and history in isolation, but instead seek to connect Tangut studies to broader disciplines—such as Buddhist studies—by applying new methods and conceptual frameworks; and second, they are internationally engaged and not limited by national academic boundaries. In this sense, the panel reflected a conscious effort by these scholars to bring Tangut Buddhist Studies into wider academic conversations and to seek recognition on a global stage.
BDG: What was the nature of the interaction between Tibet and Xixia in the period you are researching (12th–13th centuries)?
ZM: This period marked a pivotal moment in the history of Inner Asia. For the first time, Tibetan Buddhism—as a self-contained religious tradition shaped during the Later Diffusion period—was transmitted beyond the Tibetan plateau. A significant number of Tibetan Buddhist texts, particularly those related to tantric practices, were translated into Tangut and Chinese, and actively engaged by non-Tibetan communities in the Xixia state. This engagement was not merely textual but also institutional: positions such as the imperial preceptor were established and held by Tibetan monks. These developments laid the groundwork for new forms of religio-political interaction that would later become central to the Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties.
BDG: What do the Tibetan Buddhist, Tangut-language scholastic works you highlight in your lecture reveal about what the Tibetans were practicing and subsequently translating into Tangut? What philosophical and tantric insights were in danger of being lost without the original Tibetan?
ZM: The scholastic works I have examined are all connected to Rngog Lo tsā ba Blo ldan shes rab (Ngok Lotsāwa Loden Sherab) (1059–1109) and the Gsang phu monastery (Sangpu Neutok), where he served as abbot. Given the limited availability of Tibetan sources for studying this scholastic tradition, the Tangut translations serve as valuable supplements that help reconstruct a more complete picture. For instance, I identified a Tangut translation of a treatise on Buddhist epistemology by Rma bya Byang chub brtson ‘grus (Maja Jangchub Tsöndru) (d. 1185). Until now, only his writings on Madhyamaka were known in Tibetan, so this Tangut text significantly expands our understanding of his thought, particularly in the domain of Buddhist epistemology. On the tantric side, one striking example is the presence of commentaries on early Rnying ma scriptures. None of these commentaries are extant in the Tibetan corpus, making their Tangut versions critical for uncovering otherwise lost perspectives on the Rnying ma tradition during the formative phase of the Later Diffusion.
BDG: Apart from these scholastic works, is there any broad indication of Tangut Buddhism influencing Tibetan Buddhism in any way, or was it largely a one-way street and the Tanguts absorbed as much of Tibetan Buddhism as they could?
ZM: In terms of intellectual or doctrinal influence, it was largely a one-way street. The Tangut tradition was still in a formative stage, and the number of indigenous Tangut Buddhist compositions was relatively limited. However, the Tanguts did exert influence on Tibetan Buddhism in other important ways. For instance, the iconic black hat worn by the Karma Bka’ brgyud patriarchs is believed to have been derived from official headgear worn by Tangut government officials.
Additionally, the use of woodblock printing for Tibetan texts likely began in Xixia, where the earliest known Tibetan block print—dated to 1149—was produced as a government-sponsored project. Certain stylistic elements in Tibetan Buddhist art also appear to have originated in the Tangut realm. So while the philosophical flow was mostly from Tibet to Xixia, the material and institutional dimensions reveal a more reciprocal dynamic.
BDG: The tantric texts preserved in Tangut bring together Tibetan and Chinese Mahayana influences. Did the Tanguts have any pilgrimage sites for Tibet, even replica ones, like they had for Wutaishan?
ZM: If we are referring specifically to sites in Central Tibet, then the answer is no—there is virtually no record of Tanguts from the Xixia heartland undertaking pilgrimages or studying in Central Tibet. However, it is important to remember that the Xixia polity included large regions that were already heavily populated by Tibetans, particularly across present-day Amdo. If we broaden our perspective to include these areas, then the answer is certainly yes.
One notable example is Matishan (馬蹄山), located near Ganzhou (modern Zhangye), which appears to have served as a significant pilgrimage site. Even Emperor Renzong (r. 1139–93) is recorded to have visited the site and made offerings there.
BDG: How would you evaluate the significance of Tangut Buddhism and the Tanguts generally in world history today?
ZM: I believe that understanding the Xixia state and its culture opens a window onto many broader developments in world history. For instance, in Chinese historical studies, much attention has been given to the Song–Yuan transition. Yet many of the institutional and ideological foundations of the Yuan did not emerge solely from the Song, but also from Xixia.
In the realm of Buddhism, several traditions typically studied under the umbrella of Chinese Buddhism in fact have Tangut roots. A good example is the hungry ghost (Yujia yankou 瑜伽焰口) ritual, which became widespread during the Ming period but was, to a large extent, a Tangut reinterpretation and assimilation of Indo-Tibetan tantric practices. Xixia also represents a compelling historical case of a state that tightly integrated religion with governance—offering a valuable point of comparison for medievalists working on Europe and beyond.
Tangut studies remains an underexplored field with immense potential. We currently have access to over 10,000 Tangut textual items, around 80–85 per cent of which are Buddhist. A significant portion of these texts remains entirely unstudied, alongside a rich corpus of art and material culture. As research on these sources progresses, Tangut studies is poised to make increasingly meaningful contributions to our understanding of global history.
Related features from BDG
Book Review: Curses of the Kingdom of Xixia
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Tangut Time: A Timeline of Tangutology—Origins to World War Two
Tangut Time: A Timeline of Tangutology—Post-World War Two till Today
