My previous article explored the foundations of Thích Nhất Hạnh’s Engaged Buddhism. It traced how his early monastic training in mindfulness, manual labor, and the use of gāthās laid the groundwork for a spirituality deeply connected with social action. It also examined his efforts to renew Vietnamese Buddhism and his response to the immense suffering caused by the wars in Vietnam. These experiences shaped a bold, socially engaged spiritual path that challenged traditional expectations of monastic life. It grew directly from the suffering he witnessed and endured.
In this second part, we will examine how Thích Nhất Hạnh’s experiences continued to shape his vision of a Buddhism actively engaged with the realities of the world. We begin by looking at the obstacles he faced from conservative Buddhist circles.
Obstacles encountered in renewing Buddhism in Vietnam
Thích Nhất Hạnh’s socially engaged approach to Buddhism challenged many traditional-minded Buddhist leaders, who believed that monastics should avoid social and political involvement. As a result, he faced numerous setbacks that made his efforts to renew Vietnamese Buddhism particularly difficult.
One such setback occurred in 1956, when his name was removed from the records at Ấn Quang Temple, where he had lived for six years. This act effectively expelled him from the monastic community. (Chapman 2007) Looking back on actions such as these taken against him, Thích Nhất Hạnh remarked: “It was still too radical for the majority of the elders in the Buddhist establishment. They dismissed many of our ideas, and steadily began to silence our voices.” (Kyte n.d.) It highlighted the growing resistance to his ideas among elder monks.
Another notable setback occurred in 1958, when the magazine Vietnamese Buddhism, where Thích Nhất Hạnh served as chief editor, was suspended after he published articles promoting a humanistic and unified vision for the tradition. He later reflected on the experience, saying, “The Buddhist leaders didn’t approve of my articles.” (Thích Nhất Hạnh 2000, Plum Village n.d.-b) His words reveal a deep sense of disappointment, as his efforts to transform the course of Vietnamese Buddhism were repeatedly blocked by those in positions of authority.
From the remarks of Vietnamese Buddhist activist and writer Văn Minh Phạm, who worked closely with Thích Nhất Hạnh during that time, we gain additional insight into the tension he faced:
Nhất Hạnh had always been a maverick. He was a non-conformist and a solitary figure amongst his contemporaries. . . . As far as a vision of a modern and engaged Buddhism was concerned, Nhất Hạnh was light years ahead of other members of the Sangha, and so little wonder many monks were uncomfortable with his charisma. He sometimes complained about the conservative elders in the Buddhist Institute. (Phạm 2001)
Phạm’s observations highlight both Thích Nhất Hạnh’s innovative vision and the discomfort it provoked among more traditional monastics.
Despite his deep commitment to applying Buddhist ideals in the lives of his people, Thích Nhất Hạnh reached a point of profound despair in the face of these persistent setbacks:
We felt lost. Our opportunity to influence the direction of Buddhism had slipped away. The hierarchy was so conservative. What chance did we—young people without position or a center of our own—have to realize our dreams? I became so sick I almost died. . . . It felt like the end. (Thích Nhất Hạnh 2000)
This moment of despair reveals just how much was at stake for Thích Nhất Hạnh and his peers. Compounding these challenges was the Vietnam War (1955–75), a conflict between communist North Vietnam and anti-communist South Vietnam. The war caused significant political and social upheaval, further complicating efforts to reform and modernize Vietnamese Buddhism.
Although Thích Nhất Hạnh faced tremendous difficulties, the challenges of the 1950s deepened his personal practice and gave him the spiritual strength to move forward. (Plum Village n.d.-b) These obstacles helped shape his engaged teachings and practices, which came from the real suffering he experienced firsthand. This gave his message a unique depth and credibility.
Influences of overseas experiences
These deeply personal challenges at home were soon complemented by new perspectives abroad. In the early 1960s, Thích Nhất Hạnh traveled to the United States to study comparative religion at Princeton University. After completing his studies, he went on to teach Buddhism at Columbia University. (Kyte n.d., Plum Village n.d.-a, Thích Nhất Hạnh 2017)
One day, in October 1962, Thích Nhất Hạnh attended a sermon at a Japanese Pure Land temple in New York. His reflections on the experience below reveal the kinds of Buddhist teachings he felt would better resonate with Western audiences:
I have to admit I didn’t find the sermon very inspiring. Such sermons will hardly be effective in sowing seeds of Buddhism in America. The Pure Land sect emphasizes seeking salvation from what appears to be an external source. This approach is familiar to Europeans and Americans, who have plenty of seminaries and eloquent ministers to spread the word of Christian salvation. The Pure Land sect’s efforts to look like Western churches seem to me to reflect their lack of understanding of the true American needs. Americans place a high value on independence. Their children are encouraged to be self-sufficient and self-reliant.
A Buddhist approach that emphasizes self-effort and self-realization, like Zen, to build, develop, and awaken the individual, seems to be better suited to the American spirit. Christianity and Pure Land Buddhism have the appearance of considering that humans are too weak to achieve salvation without divine intervention. . . . People who live in a frenetic society, exhausted by interminable plans and thoughts, thirst for the serenity and self-contentment that a path like Zen offers. (Thích Nhất Hạnh 2000)
This shows Thích Nhất Hạnh’s keen awareness of cultural and religious differences. He believed that Western audiences needed a form of Buddhism centered on personal effort and self-realization. He saw Zen, with its focus on inner development, as better aligned with the American spirit. This understanding would later play a key role in shaping his approach to Engaged Buddhism as it evolved further in France.
While Thích Nhất Hạnh was contemplating how Buddhism could be adapted to Western audiences, the situation in Vietnam was rapidly deteriorating. The rising political and religious tensions would soon bring him back to his homeland, where a deeply significant event would shape his views on Buddhism’s role in society.
Thích Nhất Hạnh’s view on self-immolations
Back in Saigon, on 11 June 1963, the elderly monk Thích Quảng Đức burned himself to death in response to the increasingly discriminatory policies against Buddhists introduced by Ngô Đình Diệm, then president of South Vietnam. As protests continued to grow, the situation escalated. In response to Diệm’s repressive administration, a coup backed by the United States was carried out by senior generals in South Vietnam, leading to the fall of Diệm’s regime in November. (King 1996)
At the request of Thích Trí Quang, a prominent Buddhist leader at the time, Thích Nhất Hạnh returned to Vietnam in December to help address the political crisis. (Chapman 2007, Hunt-Perry & Fine 2000, King 1996) That same year, the Unified Buddhist Church of Vietnam was established, aiming to bring together both the Theravada and Mahayana traditions in the country. (Jorgensen 2000, King 1996)
Self-immolations by monks, nuns, and laypeople continued during the war years. Although such acts may appear extreme, Thích Nhất Hạnh, in a letter to Martin Luther King Jr., emphasized that they were neither suicides nor protests. Rather, they were done with the intention to awaken the world. (Thích Nhất Hạnh 1967) He said:
It should not be conceived as violent. It was a manifestation of the individual’s inability to bear the suffering of the people and a powerful attempt by the individual to reach the hearts of others. By demonstrating in this way the suffering of war, the self-immolator hoped that those who supported or perpetuated the war would likewise become unable to bear the pain of war and stop the actions that allowed it to continue. (King 1996)
While these acts of self-immolation were motivated by deep compassion, Thích Nhất Hạnh made it clear that they could not be judged in simple terms of good or bad. He explained:
We do not intend to say that self-immolation is good, or that it is bad. It is neither good nor bad. When you say something is good, you say that you should do that. But nobody can urge another to do such a thing. So such a discussion is not pursued in order to decide whether self-immolation is a good tactic in the nonviolent struggle or not. It is apart from all that. It is done to wake us up. (King 1996)
This view aligns with what we discussed in my previous article, “Buddhist Mindfulness Versus Secular Mindfulness, Part 2,” in which we looked at how Buddhist moral behavior is not determined by society’s fixed rules of right and wrong. Instead, it arises from mindful discernment of how to help in a given situation. An act like this, therefore, cannot be judged simply as moral or immoral, good or bad.
Going beyond such categories, it is a selfless act that arises authentically in response to a particular circumstance. Thích Nhất Hạnh invited us to move past binary thinking and see the act for what it is: a call to wake up, grounded in compassion, and the intention to alleviate suffering.
Conclusion
Thích Nhất Hạnh’s Engaged Buddhism was shaped by his personal struggles to renew Vietnamese Buddhism and by the turbulent context of wartime Vietnam. Despite strong resistance from conservative Buddhist leaders and the escalating violence of the war, his vision of Buddhism as an active force for social change persisted. These challenges did not diminish his resolve; instead, they deepened his personal practice and strengthened his vision.
His experiences in the United States widened his perspective on how Buddhist teachings could resonate with Western audiences. In his reflections on self-immolation and nonviolent action, he emphasized compassion and awakening over moral judgment.
Thích Nhất Hạnh’s Engaged Buddhism was not based only on theory or monastic study, but was grounded in direct encounters with suffering—personal, social, and global. That is why his approach feels so real and deeply relatable.
In the next article, we will explore how his Engaged Buddhism continued to evolve during the war.
References
Chapman, John. 2007. “The 2005 pilgrimage and return to Vietnam of exiled Zen Master Thích Nhất Hạnh.” In P. Taylor (Ed.), Modernity and Re-enchantment: Religion in Post-revolutionary Vietnam (pp. 297–341). Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies.
Hunt-Perry, Patricia., & Fine, Lyn. 2000. “All Buddhism is engaged: Thích Nhất Hạnh and the Order of Interbeing.” In C. S. Queen (Ed.), Engaged Buddhism in the West (pp. 35–66). Boston: Wisdom Publications.
Jorgensen, John. 2000. “Chan/Zen: Vietnam.” In W. M. Johnston (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Monasticism. Chicago and London: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers.
Kyte, Lindsay. n.d. The life of Thích Nhất Hạnh. Retrieved from https://www.lionsroar.com/the-life-of-thich-nhat-hanh/amp/
King, Sallie B. 1996. “Thích Nhất Hạnh and the Unified Buddhist Church: Nondualism in action.” In C. S. Queen (Ed.), Engaged Buddhism: Buddhist Liberation Movements in Asia (pp. 321–63). Albany: State University of New York Press.
Phạm, Văn Minh. 2001. Socio-political Philosophy of Vietnamese Buddhism: A Case Study of the Buddhist Movement of 1963 and 1966. (Master’s thesis). University of Western Sydney, Australia.
Plum Village. n.d.-a. The life story of Thích Nhất Hạnh. Retrieved from https://plumvillage.org/about/thich-nhat-hanh/biography/
Plum Village. n.d.-b. Thích Nhất Hạnh: Extended biography. Retrieved from https://plumvillage.org/about/thich-nhat-hanh/biography/thich-nhat-hanh-full-biography
Thích Nhất Hạnh. 1967. Vietnam: Lotus in a Sea of Fire. New York: Hill and Wang.
Thích Nhất Hạnh. 2000. Fragrant Palm Leaves: Journals 1962–1966. London: Rider.
Thích Nhất Hạnh. 2017. The Other Shore: A New Translation of the Heart Sutra with Commentaries. Berkeley, California: Palm Leave Press.
Related features from BDG
Thích Nhất Hạnh’s Engaged Buddhism During Wartime Vietnam, Part 1
