The significance of Aśoka the Great (304–232 BC), and the legacy expressed in his lion capitals and rock edicts, can be instantly appreciated with a glance at the national emblem of modern India. During his reign from 268–32 BC, this emperor of the Mauryan dynasty ruled over two-thirds of the Indian subcontinent (present Bangladesh, northeast India, Nepal, Pakistan, and Afghanistan). Aśoka made a significant contribution to spreading Buddhist teachings in ancient India and beyond. Buddhist tradition celebrates him as a prominent lay Buddhist (upāsaka) who established the model of the chakravartin, or wheel-turning monarch. Throughout his kingdom, Emperor Aśoka planted the seeds of Dharma and inspired his citizens to lead their lives in accordance with the teachings of the Buddha. For his virtuous governance, he became known as a righteous ruler (dharmarāja).
The early life of Aśoka
The son of King Bindusāra (r. c. 297–73 BC), Aśoka was the grandson and second successor of Chandragupta Maurya (r. c. 320–298 BC), the founder of the Maurya Dynasty. His life story can be viewed from three dimensions: the period before he ascended the throne, his early kingship, and the period after he took refuge in the three treasures.
Before he became the supreme ruler of Maghadha, Buddhist historiography holds that Aśoka killed ninety-nine half-brothers to secure his position. When he ascended the throne, Aśoka nurtured a great ambition to expand his kingdom. Eight years after his coronation, Aśoka engaged in a brutal war against the Kalingans in modern Orissa, which became known as the Kalinga War. According to his Rock Edict XIII, his troops massacred over 100,000 people, and 150,000 people were sent to prison or enslaved. Because of the cruelty and the massive destruction that he inflicted, he became known as Caṇdāśoka or Aśoka the Fierce.
By his own admission, Aśoka was overwhelmed with sorrow and deep regret. His taking refuge in the three treasures would change the course of his rule. Aśoka dedicated himself to propagating the Dharma in his kingdom and to beyond Maghada. For his virtuous role in the spread of Dharma, Caṇdāśoka later would become known as Dharma-Aśoka or Aśoka the Righteous.
Aśoka’s conversion to Buddhism
After the Kalinga War, the emperor felt deep sorrow, remorse, and regret and struggled to find a way to come to terms with his guilt. One day, he saw a seven-year-old novice monk walking down the street while looking outside his window. The young novice, Nigrodha Samanera, was the son of Prince Sumana, the elder brother of Aśoka. Aśoka had killed Prince Sumana, along with his other ninety-nine brothers, during the early power struggle for the Mauryan throne. Little did Aśoka know that this son of his “original sin” would help plant the seeds of his redemption.
Aśoka was impressed by Nigrodha’s peaceful presence and summoned him to the royal court. When Nigrodha entered the palace, there were no other monks present. Aśoka requested that he choose a suitable seat. After some thought, Nigrodha chose to sit on the king’s throne. Had there been other monks present, out of respect, Nigrodha would have selected another seat other than the king’s throne. Nigrodha’s fearless, yet tranquil appearance impressed Aśoka and brought him immense joy.
Upon Aśoka’s request, Nigrodha delivered a sermon on heedfulness (appamāda). It immediately touched Aśoka’s heart. Enthralled with Nigrodha’s talk, he became curious about Nigrodha’s wisdom. Nigrodha revealed that he followed the path of the Buddha and his master, Elder Maggalipuytta Tissa. Almost immediately, Aśoka decided to take refuge in the three treasures, and became a lay Buddhist (upāsaka). He was further inspired to meet and provide meals to Nigrodha’s preceptor, teachers and saṅgha members.
The Buddha’s teaching inspired Emperor Aśoka to reform his approach to governance. He would even come to support the Third Buddhist council, built the symbolically significant number of 84,000 stupas, erected pillars and rock inscriptions across his empire, and constructed monuments that supported Buddhist pilgrimage.
The Third Buddhist Council
One of Aśoka’s most significant contributions was his convening of the Third Buddhist Council, held in 250 BC. An important task for the saṅgha (which was embroiled in internal bickering at the time) was to purify itself from heretical religious groups (theyya-sinivāsaka) that had infiltrated the Buddhist order.
The reason for this infiltration was partly due to Aśoka himself. He had taken refuge and felt invested in supporting the saṅgha, and so extended his support and provided monks with facilities and requisites (Minor Rock Edict III). The heretical groups, noticing these subsidies and imperial prestige, decided to join the saṅgha. Because of their deceitful plan to receive special privileges, they misused and desecration the Buddha’s teachings. With this intrusion, the sincere monastics grew distressed, and the community became embroiled in conflict. Since Moggaliputta Tissa was deeply concerned with the intrusion of the heretic monks, he refused to observe the monastic Vinaya rules (uposatha) with false monks, and left Pāṭaliputra to meditate on Ahogangā Mountain.
When Aśoka was notified of the dispute between the genuine monks and the heretics, he sought to resolve the division. He sent a minister to the monastery, but uninformed of the heretic monks sneaking about, the minister ended up killing several innocent monks by mistake. Aśoka was filled with deep anguish when he heard the news, and was horrified at the prospect that his own minister had committed an offence. He asked the monks whether he was personally responsible for the beheadings committed by his minister. Since the monks’ answers were unsatisfactory, the monastic community suggested that Aśoka seek counsel from Moggaliputta Tissa at Abhogangā Mountain. When approached by the emperor and his emissaries, Moggaliputta settled Aśoka’s doubt and explained that since his intention was not to kill the monks, he did not commit the sin. Aśoka decided to offer his full support to Moggalaputta Tissa and purify the saṅgha members of the heretics.
Moggaliputta Tissa and Aśoka, summoned the entire monastic community to an assembly to discern the heretic monks from the true saṅgha. The conveners requested that the monks explain the Buddha’s Doctrine of Analysis (vibhajjavāda) to test their knowledge. Sixty thousand monks failed to answer the question correctly and were identified as heretics. But six hundred-thousand monks responded to the question correctly and were recognized as genuine saṅgha members. The heretic monks were asked to disrobe and left the region of Pāṭaliputra.
Seven years later, the remaining six hundred-thousand monks recited the monastic rules at Aśokārāma in Pāṭaliputra. Moggaliputta Tissa selected one thousand among them to attend an elite assembly, which would become known as the Third Buddhist Council. In this large assembly of monks, Moggaliputta Tissa presented the fifth treatise of the Abhidharma Piṭaka, the Kathāvatthuppakaraṇa. The Third Buddhist Council played an important role in protecting the Buddha’s Dharma and Vinaya. After the conclusion of the historic assembly, Moggaliputta Tissa and Aśoka appointed nine missionaries to propagate the Buddha’s teachings throughout nine regions. With the success of the Third Buddhist Council, Aśoka constructed 84,000 Buddhist memorials throughout his kingdom.
Nine missionaries into nine regions
As a devout convert who felt his life and values transformed by Buddhism, Aśoka wanted others beyond his domains to experience the lucidity that he had realized. He hoped for other rulers to enjoy “a wholesome outcome, a peaceful life and an understanding of the essence of Dharma” (Pillar Edict VII). Asoka’s appointment of the nine missionaries to the nine different regions led to the expansion of the Buddha’s teachings. Aśoka also appointed his own son and daughter, Mahinda and Saṅghamittā, to see the Sri Lankan King, Devanampriya Tissa. Mahinda and Saṅghamittā had already entered the monastic order, and they played influential roles in expanding the Dharma from Pāṭaliputra to Sri Lanka.
The dedication of the missionary monks contributed to the growth of the Buddhist dispensation. Even though the Buddha’s teachings eventually disappeared from India until the 20th century, the Buddha’s teachings spread further than any other Indic religion.
Aśoka’s inscriptions
For the purpose of spreading Dharma throughout his dominion, Aśoka erected rocks and pillars with inscriptions. He ordered his scribes to carve edicts onto the pillars and rocks, and these inscriptions are found in more than thirty places throughout modern-day India, Nepal, Pakistan, and Afghanistan. Most of Aśoka’s scripts were written in the Brahmi script. Each inscription opens with his self-bestowed epithet, “Beloved of the Gods” (Devanampriya). Aśoka’s royal title, Priyadaśī, is embellished within each edict.
Through his inscriptions, Aśoka expounded his understanding ofDharma. He outlined his sense of compassion, attention to social welfare, and Dharmic values. So far, archeologists have found fourteen major surviving rock edicts.
Aśoka worked tirelessly to uplift his empire through Dharma. His inscriptions on instructed that a life in accordance to Dharma protected one from evil and unwholesome states of mind. His life and example were invaluable contributions to the legacy of the Buddha, and the spread of Buddhism across Asia through time and space.
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