When discussing famous Chinese artists, few figures command as much reverence as Zhang Daqian, or Chang Dai-Chien, (1899–1983). Renowned for his peerless traditional Chinese painting, Zhang’s masterpieces, including his imitative works (acknowledged by Chinese and Western art scholars alike to be effectively perfect) have transcended borders and captivated viewers and buyers across the globe. Yet beneath his brilliant brushstrokes lies a profound spiritual odyssey that transformed him into one of the 20th century’s most influential Buddhist artists: in fact, I would call him a Dharma artist.
This journey was a long time coming for him, and reached an important milestone during his three-year retreat at the Dunhuang grottoes in China in the early 1940s. It was a period that not only elevated his artistry but also deepened his connection to Vajrayana Buddhism, shaping his life and legacy forever.
Associating Zhang with Vajrayana Buddhism might not fit the intended narrative for auction houses or mainstream art observers. But his affinities, of which there is documentation, are too clear to ignore.
The early years: a monk in Shanghai
Zhang’s spiritual journey began in his youth, when he briefly took monastic vows in Shanghai. Adopting the name “Daqian” (Big Thousand), he nurtured a powerful bond with Buddhist thought and philosophy. It was a relationship that would remain throughout his life and work. Though his time as a monk was short-lived, the experience left an enduring imprint on his thinking, igniting a lifelong fascination with Buddhist art and spirituality.
This early exposure to monastic life planted the seeds for his later exploration of Buddhist themes, particularly the lotus: a symbol of purity and enlightenment. Over the decades, Zhang painted thousands of lotuses, from his native Sichuan to his later homes in Brazil and Taiwan, each stroke embodying the lotus’s journey from earthly travails to the Pure Land paradise.
The call of Dunhuang: a three-year spiritual retreat
In 1941, amid the chaos of the Japanese invasion and the Second World War, Zhang Daqian embarked on a transformative pilgrimage to the Dunhuang grottoes in Gansu Province. This remote desert oasis, home to one of the world’s most extensive collections of Buddhist art, became his sanctuary for three years and three months. The grottoes, which are like the Louvre inside a mountain, house intricate murals and statues dating back over 1,700 years, offering a window into the spiritual and artistic zenith of ancient China.
Zhang’s time in Dunhuang was not without hardship. Working in remote, harsh conditions, he endured extreme temperatures, isolation, and the physical strain of accessing fragile, ancient murals. Inside cramped, dimly lit caves, he toiled by candlelight, meticulously removing layers of sand and dust to reveal the vibrant artistry beneath. Over the course of his stay, Zhang copied more than 200 paintings, mastering ancient techniques and pigments to ensure their authenticity. His dedication to preserving this cultural heritage was unparalleled, but the endeavor exacted a significant toll, physically and mentally.
Zhang’s work in Dunhuang was more than an artistic pursuit; it was a form of spiritual practice. He meticulously labelled every grotto under his own system, indicating his reverence for the site. His copies of Dunhuang’s Buddhas, bodhisattvas, Pure Lands, and asparas were not mere reproductions but acts of devotion, akin to the meditative practices of Vajrayana Buddhism. Just as vajra dancers imitate ancient movements to embody spiritual truths, Zhang’s replication of these sacred images was a means of accumulating merit and deepening his connection to the divine.
The esoteric connection: Vajrayana and Tibetan Buddhism
One of the most intriguing dimensions of Zhang’s time in Dunhuang was his engagement with esoteric Buddhism. The grottoes are adorned with depictions of Buddhist deities, mandalas, and stories from the sutras: complex and enigmatic figures that demand a deep understanding of esoteric theology. For Zhang, these images were not merely artistic subjects but sources of profound spiritual inspiration. He painted some of the senior Vajrayana deities, such as Yamantaka, Vajrayogini, and Ushnishavijaya.
His fascination with esoteric Buddhism extended beyond Dunhuang. Zhang made pilgrimages to Ta’er Si or Kumbum Monastery in Qinghai, birthplace of Je Tsongkapa, the founder of the Gelug school and a significant center for Tibetan Buddhist studies. On the 15th day of the Chinese New Year, circa 1942, he would undertake the arduous journey to celebrate the full moon festival, indicating his determination and devotion despite the challenges of wartime travel. It is plausible that he met the Panchen Lama, who occasionally resided at Kumbum Monastery, though definitive evidence remains elusive.
A photograph from this period captures Zhang standing before the colossal Maitreya Buddha grotto in Dunhuang, flanked by Tibetan monks from Kumbum Monastery. The image, likely taken after a puja (ritual offering), suggests a moment of deep spiritual significance. The ceremonial context and the presence of the monks hint at Zhang’s immersion in esoteric practices, marking a pivotal chapter in his spiritual journey.
The artistic evolution: from representation to embodiment
After leaving Dunhuang in 1943, Zhang’s art underwent a profound transformation. His paintings exuded a newfound spiritual depth and visual complexity, reflecting the influence of his immersion in esoteric Buddhism. Deities such as Yamantaka, painted with Tibetan script, became recurring motifs in his work. These figures were no longer mere representations but embodiments of divine power, infused with the mystical energy of Vajrayana practice.
Malachite and lapis lazuli from Dunhuang, especially noticeable on the paintings of Western Xia (Tangut) bodhisattvas in the esoteric quarters of the Yulin Caves, were integrated into Zhang’s iconic blue-green series of splash paintings. A self-portrait in this style featured one of his deceased Tibetan mastiffs, Black Tiger, a dog that was gifted to him after his 1943 voyage to Dunhuang. He said of the Qinghai herdsmen’s mastiffs: “These strapping, fierce, handsome-looking dogs make a great painting subject. . . . They are much more loyal to their owner compared with Western breeds.” (Sotheby’s)
Zhang’s ability to visualize and depict esoteric Buddhist divinities with such precision and devotion speaks to an internal transformation. His art became a medium for spiritual expression, a visual manifestation of his journey on the bodhisattva path. The three years and three months he spent in Dunhuang can be likened to a silent retreat, akin to Bodhidharma’s legendary meditation in a cave: a period of intense spiritual cultivation that elevated his art and deepened his Buddhist empowerment.
Despite the financial strain of his Dunhuang endeavors, which left him in debt for over two decades, Zhang donated a full collection of his Dunhuang paintings to the Sichuan Museum. This act of generosity underscored his commitment to sharing the Dharma and preserving cultural heritage, rather than seeking personal gain.
Legacy of a Dharma artist
Zhang Daqian’s time in Dunhuang and his engagement with esoteric Buddhism left an indelible mark on his art and legacy. His works from this period are not merely masterpieces of Chinese painting, but also profound expressions of Buddhist spirituality. They invite viewers to look beyond aesthetic beauty and delve into the deeper realms of Buddhist practice and enlightenment.
Zhang Daqian’s journey from a monk in Shanghai to a Dharma artist of the Diamond Vehicle is a testament to the transformative power of art and spirituality. His three-year sojourn in Dunhuang brought him greater creativity and devotion, shaping him into one of the most revered and diverse artists of his time. Through his art, Zhang not only preserved the Buddhist heritage of Dunhuang, but also illuminated the path of producing enlightened art for generations of artists and collectors alike. His legacy endures as a bridge between the earthly and the divine, a reminder of the profound interplay between art and Buddhism.
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