In Buddhism, enlightenment is accessible to all, regardless of gender. In the highest teachings of tantra, a unique aspect emerges: the existence of five female transcendental buddhas, representing the wisdom aspect of the Five Great Buddhas. Alternatively, they are sometimes interpreted as the Five Great Buddhas themselves in female form. One such set of goddesses has been discovered in Ukubahah, a vihara in the old city of Patan, Nepal. This article focuses on researching these previously underappreciated sculptures from Ukubahaḥ. It highlights striking similarities between the iconography of ninth century Ukubahaḥ sculptures and 11th–13th century murals at Alchi Monastery in Ladakh. Among the five Taras, three identical depictions are identified in Alchi’s Sumtsek Monastery. For this study, a comparative analysis was conducted solely on the depictions from Ukubahah in Nepal and Sumtsek Monastery in Ladakh. The female buddhas at Ukubahaḥ in Lalitpur resemble those at Alchi Sumtsek Monastery in Ladakh.
In Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism, the goddess Tara holds a significant position. She is depicted in various roles, including as a female bodhisattva, a female buddha, and even as the Mother of Buddhas. (Beyer 1973) Multiple forms of Tara appear throughout South Asia, Tibet, China, and neighboring regions. Tara is represented in various forms and media, such as stone, clay, metal, murals, and miniature paintings, dating from at least the sixth century CE. Her representation in art has continued to evolve ever since. (Beyer 1973, 87) This article focuses on identifying a set of early wooden sculptures found in the Kathmandu Valley as the female buddha known as Tara. These carvings date to the 7th–9th centuries, contemporaneous with the Śalabhanjika struts on the adjoining walls. (Slusser & Jett 2010) On observing these figures found in Ukubahah, they are depicted with characteristics identical to male buddhas, such as similar hand and leg gestures, but with the addition of breasts, wider hips, and a female hairstyle. Based on the author’s understanding, there are no primary textual sources in Sanskrit and Tibetan literature, therefore, a comparative method is employed here using images.
Five female buddhas
Tara is the female version of the transcendental buddhas. In Vajrayana, there is the concept of the Five Buddha Families. This begins with the Guhyasamaja Tantra, which is attributed to an earlier period, circa the eighth century. (Okuyama 1982) The Guhyasamaja Tantra mentions the female buddhas; Dvesarati or Mamaki, Locana as Moharati, Ragarati or Pandara, Vajrarati or Vajradhatesvari, and Irsyarati or Samaya Tara.
Generally, among this set of five, except for Samaya Tara, the consort of Amoghasiddhi, the other Taras are typically not worshiped as principal deities. Locana, Mamaki, Pandara, and Vajradhatesvari have received inadequate attention because they lack individuality and active functions. They are essentially inert and subservient to the Tathagatas, serving iconographically as their female reflections. No specific sadhana or mandala revolves around Locana Tara, Mamaki Tara, Pandara Tara, and Vajradhatesvari Tara. In collective texts, such as Sadhanamala and Nispannayogavali, they appear in passive roles. They either embrace the Tathagatas or are represented singly in the intermediate directions of the maṇḍala. (Ghosh 1980) References to the five Taras are rare even in these collective texts. The Nispannayogavali Mandala that mentions all five Taras are the Pindikramoktakshobhya-mandala, Satcakravarti-mandala, Kalacakra-mandala, and Tricatvarimsadatmaka Manjuvajra-mandala. However, none of this iconography matches the icons from Ukubahah.
Female buddhas in the dhalinkava of Ukubahah
Locally known as Ukubahah, Sivadeva Samskarita Omkuli Rudravarna Mahavihara is a prominent Nevaḥ-style vihara in Lalitpur, Nepal. Ukubahah has many significant features, including its well-preserved bahah architecture and art—among the oldest Buddhist sites in the Kathmandu Valley, dating to the sixth century CE. (Ghosh 1980) The bahah was renovated in the 11th century by King Rudradeva. The esteemed architectural historian Niels Gutschow observes that subsequent chronicles corroborate the date, but no specific documents extant predate the 12th century. (Gutschow 2011)
Gutschow alludes to radiocarbon dating of certain roof struts and blind windows, indicating that they are features from the ninth century CE. The inward-facing roofs of the courtyard are supported by unpainted corbels depicting Salabhanjikas. Dowman (2020) characterizes these as “some of the most exceptional in the valley” and observes that “their allure is as potent as that of any feminine representation in Nepal Mandala.” In this manner, these elements likely rank among the earliest wooden architectural features to survive in their original location in the Kathmandu Valley.
There are many carvings on the beams of the surrounding walls facing inward toward the Ukubahah complex. Miniature wood carvings in dhalinkava surround the vihara on all four sides, among which are carvings of various religious objects, scenes from different Jataka stories, and grass motifs. “Dhalin” means beam, and “kava” means space, therefore “dhalinkava” refers to the space left by two beams, with an extra false beam added that features a face. The dhalinkava is an integral component of the cornice that divides the two stories of the temples or houses of the affluent in the Kathmandu Valley. Veteran scholar Shukra Sagar (2017) claims:
The Ukubahāḥ monastic complex has a maximum of those designs still preserved in their original state of carving. There are more than 400 different patterns and some mono-scenic narratives from Jataka stories carved on them.
Although Shukra Sagar and Mary Slusser were both aware of these, it remained a subject for further study. On detailed inspection, carvings of the five buddhas are found on the east wall. The sequence of the Pancabuddha in the dhalinkava starts at the southeast corner wall with Ratnasambhava, Akshobhya, Amitabha, Amoghasiddhi, and Vairocana. Similarly, on the southern wall of the Bahaḥ are the figures of five female deities, each measuring approximately 12 centimeters.
Regarding the common iconographic features among these female buddhas or Taras, all the goddesses sit on a lotus. They are ornamented with crowns, earrings, necklaces, bracelets, and belts. Their crowns are very simple in design. Earrings adorn both ears of the goddess. A necklace fits tightly around the neck. They have bracelets on their wrists only. Their waists are adorned with bejeweled belts. Their hair is styled in horizontal space buns. The upper halves of their bodies are depicted as undressed, while the presence of a lower garment is inferred from the curves and patches still faintly visible on Fig. 5 and Samaya Tara (Fig. 9). Each figure has a nimbus in the background. These elegant figures hint at the skill of the artisan who carved them.
Regarding the presence of Tara figures in the monastery, Gleen H. Mullen and Jeff J. Watt (2003) state in their book Female Buddha: Woman of Enlightenment in Tibetan Mystic Art: “Similarly, the female potential for enlightenment is made clear in Tibetan Buddhist art by the large number of female buddha images found in the temples and hermitages. These appear in the five primary racial colors, indicating that women of all races have an equal potential for enlightenment.” Their point is equally applicable to Ukubahah, outside of the Tibetan context.
Female buddhas in Alchi Sumtsek Monastery
Unknown to most researchers until the 1980s, the monastic complex of Alchi, nestled in a picturesque valley in Ladakh, has miraculously preserved Buddhist wall paintings of unparalleled splendor. The renowned murals at Alchi are captivating; not only are they of great significance to the history of Tibetan culture, which is predominant in the region, but they also hold immense importance for the history of Kashmiri art. (Pal & Fournier 1983) The entire monastery is filled with beautiful murals created by unknown Kashmiri and Tibetan artists between the 11th and 13th centuries.
The artwork within the three-storied building of Sumtsek dates back to the 12th or early 13th centuries and is stylistically derived from the artistic traditions of Kashmir. These elements connect it to the Buddhist traditions prevalent in northwestern India and Kashmir—regions historically associated with the early development of esoteric Buddhism. (Leidy et al. 2006) On the second and third floors of Sumtsek are five different mandalas: the mandala of the Five Great Buddhas represented in masculine form, the mandala of Manjushri Dharmadhatumandala, the maṇḍala of Shakyamuni as Vairocana, the mandala of Prajnaparamita as Vairocana Sarvavid, and the mandala of the Five Buddhas represented in female manifestations (Fig. 11). (Snellgrove & Skorupski 1977) For this article, the focus is on the latter mandala, located on the northwest wall.
Just like the other mandalas on this floor, the mandala of the Five Buddhas represented in female manifestations is divided into a ninefold square composition. This type of composition is also seen in the mandala of the Eight Great Bodhisattvas practiced in the Diamond World tradition of Japan. In the mandala of the Five Buddhas represented in female manifestations, the center and four sides of the inner square are occupied by five goddesses, iconographically identical to their male versions. Similarly, the goddesses of the four cardinal directions are Mamaki, Pandara, and Samaya Tara.
The outer square contains the eight goddesses of the offerings and 16 bodhisattvas. This is identical to the depiction of the mandala of the Five Buddhas represented in masculine form on the southwest wall. Furthermore, the mandala murals in Sumtsek Monastery can be studied from other sources.
Comparative analysis of the female buddhas of Ukubahah and Alchi Sumtsek Monastery
Fig. 1 from Ukubahah is seated in vajraparyanka. She sits on a five-petaled lotus. With her right hand, she uplifts the dharmachakra, while her left hand is in the tarjani mudra, resting at the left side of her chest. Unlike the others in her set, her nimbus encircles only her head rather than her entire body. Her background is carved with a four-petaled flower on her right, and there is a vine of flowers to her left. A similar figure found in Sumtsek Monastery is recognized as Locana, according to Pratapaditya Pal (1983) in his book A Buddhist Paradise: The Murals of Alchi (Fig. 2).
From the mandalas of Five Buddhas represented in female manifestations, which is divided into a nine-fold square composition, there is a white goddess in the southeast corner. She is depicted in vajraparyanka. With her right hand, she uplifts the dharmachakra, and her left hand rests on the side of her lap with her palm facing upward. She is shown dressed on the upper half of her body, wearing a red dress with half sleeves (Fig. 2).
Pratapaditya Pal labels her as Locana in his book on Alchi. A fairly similar form is also found in the mandala of the Five Buddhas, represented in masculine appearance, depicted in the same room and on other Alchi monuments.
Fig. 3 from Ukubahah is a female figure depicted in vajraparyanka. She resides on a five-petaled lotus. With her right hand, she performs the bhumisparsha mudra, while her left hand rests at her side, holding a vajra firmly. The hand holding the vajra faces outward, toward the viewer. She has an almost circular nimbus, which features a layer with motifs of recurring patterns. Unlike in Figs. 5, 6, and 8, she does not have a second layer of nimbus containing dots.
Fig. 4 from Sumtsek is a female Akshobhya. She resides on a light hollow on top of multicolored flowers. She has two elephants as her Vahana. She is depicted in vajraparyanka; with her right hand, she performs the bhumisparsha mudra. Her left hand is on the lap in the samadhi mudra.
Fig. 5 depicts a figure in vajraparyanka. She sits on another five-petaled lotus. Extending her right hand, she displays the varada mudra, resting it on her right knee. Her left hand is in dhyana mudra, resting on her lap. In her left hand is a pindapatra. She has a circular nimbus with two layers behind her; the outer layer features some motifs, while the inner curve of the nimbus contains circular dots. Similar resemblance of this Ukubahah figure is found in Alchi (Fig. 6).
Fig. 6. depicts Ratnasambhava in the female aspect. This figure is in the southern direction from the central deity of the mandala. She sits in vajraparyanka and resides on two horses that are on a lotus. She has her right hand in the varada mudra and her left hand on her lap. However, one notable iconographical difference is that in this mural, she lacks the pindapatra present in the Ukubahah example.
Fig. 7 depicts a goddess seated in vajraparyanka. She is seated on a seven-petaled lotus and is encircled by a nimbus shaped like the base of an egg, which contains two layers. The outer layer is decorated with some motifs, while the inner curve of the nimbus contains circular dots. Her hands are in the samadhi mudra, without an alms bowl. In the next paragraph, is the nearly identical iconography in the Alchi murals.
Fig. 8 is the female Amitabha from Sumtsek. She is supported by two peacocks on a lotus. Her legs are positioned in vajraparyanka. This red figure has her two hands in the samadhi mudra, without a pindapatra. Apart from the peacocks, this image is the closest iconographic match to Fig. 7, which is from Ukubahah.
Fig. 9 shows similarities to the above-mentioned details. She sits on a seven-petaled lotus. The nimbus around her body has two layers; the outer layer features some motifs, while the inner curve of the nimbus contains circular dots. Her right hand is in the abhaya mudra, a gesture of fearlessness, and her left hand is in the tarjani mudra, with the index finger of her left hand straight while the other fingers remain bent. The mudra is performed with her palm facing outward.
Fig. 10 is Amoghasiddhi in female form. She is depicted identical to the well-known masculine Amoghasiddhi form, legs in vajraparyanka and hand in the abhaya mudra. However, she has a female body.
Findings
Studying the miniature wooden figures, it is clear that the female goddesses of the dhalinkava are the Five Great Buddhas in female emanations, also known as Taras. Fig. 5 depicts the female Ratnasambhava, who holds the typical attribute of an ordained monk, the pindapatra, supporting the identification as a buddha. This is further corroborated by the Ratnasambhava from the mandala of Sumtsek (Fig. 6). Similarly, it was questionable whether Fig. 7 represented a female buddha or a random meditating yogini. However, taking the Amitabha (Fig. 8) from the mandala of Five Buddhas represented in female manifestation as a reference, it is certain that this figure is a female Amitabha and not an ordinary female meditator.
As for Fig. 3, this is clearly a female Akshobhya, as she is depicted holding a vajra with one hand, with another in the bhumisparsha mudra characteristic of Akshobhya, and the vajra is his symbol. (Bhattacarya 2008) Locana, or female Vairocana, can be recognized by her hand attribute, which is a dharmachakra, a symbol of the Vairocana family. Just as the vajra symbolizes Akshobhya, the dharmachakra symbolizes Vairocana among the pancakula, or five families. Fig. 1 is further confirmed to be Locana or female Vairochana by the Alchi mandala.
Notably, there is not much logic regarding Fig. 9, apart from the fact that she has a hand in the abhaya mudra, similar to that of Amoghasiddhi. The absence of a female Amoghasiddhi in the set of five makes it plausible that Fig. 9 is none other than female Amoghasiddhi.
It is noteworthy that, apart from female Vairocana, all other goddesses hold the same mudras as their male emanations with their right hands. They exhibit the abhaya mudra, bhumisparsha mudra, varada mudra, and the dhyana mudra. Among them, the female versions of Amitabha’s and Ratnasambhava’s hand mudras are identical to the male versions. However, further study shows that female Vairocana and female Amoghasiddhi, depicting the tarjani mudra with their left hands, could be influenced by the 19th chapter of the Nishpannayogavali. Additional research is required to understand why female Vairocana and female Amoghasiddhi depict the tarjani mudra with their left hands. Nevertheless, among the five figures from Ukubahah, only three bear striking resemblance in Alchi.
Conclusion
The miniature wooden figures of goddesses in dhalinkava are, in fact, the Five Buddhas in female emanations, known as Taras. This research has shown the linkage between Buddhist art in the Kathmandu Valley and Alchi Monastery in Ladakh, India. It has also brought to light the existence of a set of early wooden sculptures of female buddhas in Ukubahah. It is recommended that further research be conducted on these figures and their relationship to Buddhist art and iconography in other parts of the world, in order to gain a deeper understanding of the role of female deities in Buddhism.
Many of the wooden artifacts from earlier centuries are now fragile. It is remarkable that these female buddha statues are still intact, although some of them have been abraded or broken. As Nevah Buddhist Bahaḥs serve as monasteries for householders, it is significant to have these types of female buddha images. Furthermore, their extended connection to Alchi’s prototypes indicates a cultural, spiritual, and intellectual exchange between these two regions. Much further research is required to elaborate on earlier images like these, which are at risk of losing their identities.
References
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Bhattacharyya, B. 2008. The Indian Buddhist Iconography. New Delhi: Aryan Books International.
Dowman, K. 2020. Nepāl Maṇdal: A Pilgrim’s Guide to the Kathmandu Valley. Independently published.
Ghosh, M. 1980. Development of Buddhist Iconography in Eastern India: A study of Tārā, Prajnas of Five Tathagatas and Bhrikuti. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers.
Gutschow, N. 2011. Architecture of the Newars: A History of Building Typologies and Details in Nepal. Chicagi: Serindia Publications.
Leidy, D. P., Thurman, and R. A. F Thurman. 2006. Maṇḍala: The Architecture of Enlightenment. New York: Overlook Press.
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Okuyama, N. 1982. “Notes on the Guhyasamāja-tantra” in the Journal of Indain and Buddhist Studies, 30(2), 669–70: https://doi.org/10.4259/ibk.30.669
Pal, P., and L. Fournier. 1983. ALCHI a marvel of Buddhist art Ladakh P.PAL – Lionel Fournier.
Shukrasagar. 2017. Dhalinkhwa & Dhalinkawa in Nepalese architecture. Spaces Blog. Retrieved 26 July 2024: https://spacesnepalblog.wordpress.com/2017/11/16/dhalinkhwa-Dhalinkawa-in-nepalese-architecture/
Slusser, M. S., and P. Jett. 2010. The Antiquity of Nepalese Wood Carving: A Reassessment. Seattle: University of Washington Press.
Snellgrove, D. L., and T. Skorupski. 1977. Cultural History of Ladakh: Central Ladakh. Aris & Phillips.
The Religious Iconography and Stylistic Analysis of the Alchi Group of Monuments. Sahapedia. Retrieved 25 July 2024: https://www.sahapedia.org/the-religious-iconography-and-stylistic-analysis-of-the-alchi-group-of-monuments
Uku Bahal Monastery, Patan, Nepal. (n.d.). Asian Historical Architecture. Retrieved July 29, 2024: https://www.orientalarchitecture.com/sid/1661/nepal/patan/uku-bahal-monastery
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