Indonesia’s national motto “Bhinneka Tunggal Ika” is usually rendered to international audiences as “Unity in Diversity.” It sounds modern, pluralistic, and civic—almost like a slogan born last century, at the height of postcolonial nationalism. Yet its intellectual and spiritual roots reach far deeper into the heart of Mahayana Buddhist philosophy, especially the doctrine of Prajnaparamita, the Perfection of Wisdom. In this article, I refer to Prajnaparamita as not just the Mahayana concept, but also the goddess Prajnaparamita, as well as the body of texts that we refer to these days as the Prajnaparamita canon.
Bhinneka Tunggal Ika originates in the 14th-century Old Javanese epic Kakawin Sutasoma, composed by Buddhist priest Mpu Tantular during the Majapahit period (1293–1527). Far from being a mere call for tolerance, “Bhinneka Tunggal Ika tan hana dharma mangrwa” (They are diverse, yet one; there is no divided truth) articulates a non-dual vision of reality—one that resonates directly with Prajnaparamita thought.
Sutasoma: a bodhisattva-king and the power of wisdom
At the center of this story stands Sutasoma, a king portrayed not as a conqueror, but as a bodhisattva who embodies compassion (karuna) and wisdom (Prajna). His antagonist, Kalmasapada (known in Java as Porusada), is a ruler empowered by devotion to Mahakala, the fierce deity associated with war, cremation grounds, and destructive power.
The dramatic tension between their parties is not resolved by battle. Instead, it is resolved by the non-dual wisdom of Prajnaparamita. In the Kakawin Sutasoma, the poet Mpu Tantular writes: “Advaya, non-duality itself, is the Father, and Prajnaparamita, the Perfection of Wisdom, is the Mother.” This narrative is preserved not only in Javanese literature but also in Mahayana Buddhist texts transmitted across Asia, most notably the Karunika-raja Prajnaparamita Sutra (仁王護國般若波羅蜜多經, Taisho 246), translated in the Tang dynasty (618–907 CE) by Amoghavajra, an esoteric tutor and protector to three Tang emperors who visited Java at least two times.
In this sutra, Kalmasapada captures hundreds of kings to offer them to the wrathful tantric deity Mahakala. Only one king remains: Sutasoma, who willingly offers himself—on one condition.
Before surrendering, Sutasoma requests time to teach the Dharma. He gathers teachers who recite verses of the Prajnaparamita, describing the nature of existence as conditioned, momentary, and empty—like lightning, shadows, or echoes. Upon hearing these verses, not only the captive kings but eventually even Kalmasapada himself awaken to Sunyata-samadhi, the meditative realization of emptiness.
What makes this story remarkable is that the distinctive elements found in Kakawin Sutasoma—Mahakala worship, and the transformative role of Prajnaparamita—do not appear in the earliest Indian Sutasoma Jataka traditions, but appears in the translation of Amoghavajra. Given that the Majapahit period is separated by several centuries, did Amoghavajra play any role in the transmission of this version of the Sutasoma into the Majapahit era?
Prajnaparamita as a jewel that protects the state
One of the most striking teachings in the Karunika-raja Prajnaparamita Sutra is the claim that the Prajnaparamita functions as a spiritual defence of the realm. The sutra states that when rulers uphold and recite the Prajnaparamita, calamities subside and prosperity arises.
This idea was taken seriously at the highest political levels. In 629, Emperor Taizong (598–649 CE) initiated the public recitation of this sutra to safeguard the recently founded Tang dynasty. His reign later became legendary as a golden age of stability and cultural brilliance.
Through trade, pilgrimage, and storytelling, the memory of this ideal Buddhist kingship reached Southeast Asia. In Java, rulers and queens were increasingly associated with the goddess Prajnaparamita. The most famous example is Gayatri Rajapatni (1276–1350), the matriarch of the Majapahit dynasty, who was posthumously deified as Prajnaparamita herself—her statue embodying serene wisdom rather than martial dominance.
Bhinneka Tunggal Ika: non-duality in cultural language
The philosophical heart of Bhinneka Tunggal Ika mirrors a core insight of Prajnaparamita: reality cannot be reduced to one, nor divided into two.
Mahayana Buddhism expresses this through the doctrine of the Two Truths: Relative truth (samvrti-satya), which is the world of difference, plurality, and social distinctions, and ultimate truth (paramartha-satya): the realization of emptiness and non-duality.
Prajnaparamita teaches that liberation arises not by rejecting the relative world, nor by clinging to the absolute, but by realizing both without attachment. This is precisely what Bhinneka Tunggal Ika expresses in poetic form. Diversity (bhinneka) is not denied. Unity (tunggal) is not imposed. Truth lies in seeing that neither stands alone.
Siva and the Buddha: wisdom transcends conflict
One of the most misunderstood aspects of Indonesian religious history is the apparent “fusion” of Buddhism and Saivism. In fact, texts associated with Amoghavajra and his circle interpret deities such as Mahakala and Mahesvara not as rivals to the Buddha, but as skillful manifestations adapted to worldly conditions.
In esoteric Mahayana, fierce deities represent the same wisdom-energy as buddhas, expressed in forms capable of confronting violence and ignorance directly. Thus, when Kakawin Sutasoma declares that the Buddha and Siva are “different yet one,” it echoes a deeply Buddhist insight: ultimate reality is non-dual, even when expressed through multiple forms.
From Wayang to the Republic: a living transmission
This Buddhist vision did not disappear with the fall of Majapahit. It survived through wayang, ritual storytelling, and popular memory.
In 1962, Indonesia’s first president, Ir. Soekarno (1901–70), attended a Wayang Sutasoma performance in Bali. Deeply moved, he quoted Sutasoma’s plea to Porusada: to spare all other kings even at the cost of his own life. Observers later noted how this moment reflected Soekarno’s own political stance—his willingness to bear personal sacrifice to prevent national disintegration during periods of crisis.
Indonesia offers global Buddhism something rare: a historical example of Prajnaparamita embodied in civilization itself. I have celebrated this spirit in my own book, Soul of Borobudur: Cakravartin’s Mandala Philosophy (2023). In an age marked by polarization, Indonesia’s Buddhist heritage offers a quiet but profound message to the world. It is this: wisdom is the art of holding many without losing the one—and realizing the one without denying the many.
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