The stories that we tell each other matter. While there is much historical debate about the narratives surrounding the Buddha and the life of the order that he left behind in the centuries after his death, what is certain is that they form a drama depicting the struggle of a nascent religious movement to pass on its founders teachings in the most accurate way possible.

From the early days of the Buddha’s teachings until his passing into deathlessness (Mahāparinibbāṇa), followers of the saṅgha from the fourfold assembly ardently followed his Dhamma and Vinaya. The Buddha purposefully did not appoint an institutional successor. He asserted that the Dhamma, rather than himself, could provide concrete guidelines for attaining the highest freedom and that one should strive diligently while on the path (Dhp. 276).

This is the story of the Buddha’s last days to how his Hearers, the first generation of accomplished disciples, protected and stewarded the institutions and teachings in the face of inevitable schism.

The Buddha-era ends

Throughout his 45 years of teaching, the Buddha spent most of his time in the northern part of ancient India, which was dominated by small kingdoms. He traveled and taught at Rājagaha, the capital of Magadha, Sāvattī, the capital of Kosala, and Vesālī, the capital of the Vajji Republic.

The Buddha became seriously ill when he was spending his final rainy retreat (Vassa) in the village of Veluva, in Vesālī. While at the Capala Shrine near Vesālī, the Buddha revealed to his attendant, Ānanda, that he would soon pass away. At a gathering of saṅgha members, the Buddha conveyed that all things are subject to change. He further encouraged the saṅgha to strive earnestly in their practice. He announced that he would pass away three months later at the northern town of Kusinārā. The Buddha further counseled the order to ardently follow the teachings and the disciplines so that they could protect the mind from defilements. If they persisted, the saṅgha could eradicate suffering and go beyond saṃsāra.

During the Buddha’s last journey from Pāvā to Kusinārā, Cunda, the metalworker, offered him a meal, of which the contents is still disputed but most likely had food poisoning or was rotten (sukara-maddava). After the Buddha ate the meal, a dire sickness fell upon him. Although the Buddha was aware of his certain demise, he showed appreciation to Cunda for his generosity and pure, wholesome intention.

In great physical pain, at the Mallas’ Sala Grove, the Buddha gave permission to Subhadda, a wondering ascetic, to take refuge. Subhadda was the Buddha’s last disciple who entered into the saṅgha.

In the presence of Ānanda and others, the Buddha gave his last testament. Ānanda, his attendant, along with the Saṅgha, grieved for the loss of their beloved and revered master. The Buddha urged them to not despair, insisting that all things are perishable. By striving diligently, one may accomplish the goal of eliminating suffering (appamādena saṃpadethā). He then passed away in Kusinārā, at the age of 80, and attained the bliss of Mahāparinibbāṇa. (DN. 16)

Each sunset leads to a new dawn. The end of the Buddha-era ushered in the new age of the preservation of the Dhamma and Vinaya to the Buddha’s disciples and successors.

The schism of the saṅgha

After he became the Buddha, Shakyamuni formed the noble community, the saṅgha. The Buddha praised the saṅgha when they dwelled in harmony and were united as one (Dhp. 194). As early as the during Buddha’s lifetime, the saṅgha was in danger of division thanks to the dark intentions of the Buddha’s cousin, Dēvadatta.

Dēvadatta’s plan to split the saṅgha, based on an attempt to split the Buddha’s order on the basis of disagreement over the Vinaya, ultimately failed (Dhp. A. 163). Yet this foreshadowed how the monastic law codes’ lifestyle proscriptions would become a critical point of contention among the Order, even more so than disputes over doctrine.

Dēvadatta would even attempt to murder the Buddha three times, but the Buddha was more upset with Dēvadatta over his attempts to split the saṅgha. Devadatta’s ill-fated plan was the first of many incidents that led to division in the saṅgha. Buddhist councils were then established to protect the Noble Community from schism.  

The First Buddhist Council

The Buddha’s passing (Mahāparinibbāṇa) brought immense sorrow to the saṅgha. In the midst of their grief over the loss of their revered master, there were murmurs that the saṅgha could do as they pleased, especially since the Buddha had not appointed an explicit successor. Mahākassapa, known as the father of the saṅgha, realized that the saṅgha was at a turning point. Wanting to preserve the authenticity and purity of the Buddha’s teachings, Mahākassapa organized an assembly, which later became known as the First Buddhist Council, circa 483 BC.

Three months after the Buddha’s demise, the council was held at the Sattapanni Cave at the Vebhara Mountain in Rajagaha (capital of the Magadha kingdom). For the duration of seven months, Ajātassatthu, the King of Magadha, provided the facilities for the councilor monks. Under the leadership of Mahākassapa, 500 monks were selected to attend the First Buddhist Council.

In the First Buddhist Council, the Buddha’s disciples recited, through oral memorization, the three baskets of Tipitaka (pitakam tīni sangītim akamsu jinasāvakā) (Cullavagga, Vn. 293). Upāli, an expert in Vinaya, began with the recitation of the monastic codes, while Ānanda, with his photographic memory, recited the Dhamma (discourses or sutta) in their entirety.

The elder Mahākassapa and Upāli sought to clarify several Vinaya-related issues, in particular the four pārājikas (serious offences for the saṅgha): committing sexual misconduct, theft, murder, and declaring stages of pure mental concentration that have not been achieved. With further explanation of the monastic rules, Upāli clarified the four pārājikas and their relation to the beneficial action (vatthu), reason (nidāna), the person concerned (puggala), the rule (paññatti), the amended rule (anupaññatti), the offence (āpatti) and the non-offence (anāpatti). Both monks and nuns’ Vinaya were to be scrutinized for their adherence to the monastic orders. Ānanda also clarified that the saṅgha may modify and update the lesser and minor Vinaya rules (ākankhamāno sangho mam’accayena khuddānukhuddakāni sikkhāpadāni samūhaneyya) (Cullavagga, Vn. 287).

After compiling the Vinaya, Mahākassapa invited Ānanda to recite the Dhamma. In the Brahmajāla Sutta (DN. 1): Ānanda recalled the context (nidāna) of the venue, the reason behind the discourse (sutta) and the person who brought up the concern (puggala). This structure, as introduced by Ānanda, can be found in the five Nikāyās: the Dīgha Nikāya, the Majjhima Nikāya; the Saṃyutta Nikāya); the Aṅguttara Nikāya, and the Khuddaka Nikāya.

The saṅgha members took a solemn responsibility to protect and record the sections of the Buddha’s discourses and monastic code through oral transmission (bhāṇaka) within the saṅgha. The saṅgha entrusted Upāli and his associates (nissitake) for guidance in preserving the Vinaya. Similarly, Ānanda and his associates provided counsel and leadership in the preservation of the Dīgha Nikāya. The associates of Sāriputta led the preservation of the Majjhima Nikāya. Mahākassapa and his associates guided the saṅgha in their effort to sustain the discourses of the Samyutta Nikāya. Anūruddha and his associates provided instruction to the saṅgha to uphold the Aṅguttara Nikāya.

The First Buddhist Council codified the Buddha’s original teachings, which led to its lasting preservation.

The Second Buddhist Council: The fiasco of the Vajjiputtakā monks

One hundred years after the Buddha’s Mahāparinibbāṇa, the Second Buddhist Council was convened in 383 BC, at Vālukarāma, in the region of Vesāli. While at Vesāli, The elder Venerable Yasa observed that the Vajjiputtakā monks were disobeying the Vinaya. Yasa recognized that the Vajjiputtakā monks were practicing ten unlawful disciplines that are mentioned in the Cullavagga of the Vinaya Pitaka. Having observed these ten offences, Yasa instructed them to adhere to the Buddha’s authentic Vinaya.

But in response to Yasa, the Vajjiputtakā monks attempted to bribe him with money, silver, and gold. When Yasa denied their bribes, the Vajjiputtakā monks issued a penalty (patisārāniya kamma ca ukkepanīya kamma) against him. They insulted Yasa and asked him to leave Vesāli.

Deeply worried and concerned about protecting the Dharma and Vinaya, Yasa sent messengers to the monks of Pātheyyaka and Avanti. Yasa met with the elder Sambhūta Sānavāsī and reported the ten disrespectful behaviors by the Vajjiputtakā monks.

In agreement with Yasa, Sānavāsī declared that the Vajjiputtakā monks broke the Vinaya rules. Yasa, Sānavāsī and their associates met with Elder Revata who was living in Soreyya. Revata confirmed that the Vajjiputtakā monks disobeyed the Vinaya rules. Even though they were aware of Yasa’s visit to Revata, the Vajjiputtakā monks attempted to bribe Revata with additional gifts. Just as Yasa had denied the Vajjiputtakā monks’ bribes, Revata also refused to accept their gifts.

Determined to take head-on the bad faith of the incalcitrant monks, Revata, Sānavāsī, Yasa, Sabbakāmi and other seniors called for an assembly, which became known as the Second Buddhist Council. Under the leadership of Revata, 700 monks were selected to attend. For the duration of eight months, Kalasoka, the King of Magadha, provided the facilities for the councilor monks. In the presence of saṅgha members, Revata sought to clarify the “ten points” from the Vajjiputtakā monks. Sabbakāmi interpreted each offense committed by the Vajjiputtakā monks as unethical. In agreement with the 700 monks, Revata and Sabbakāmi announced that the Vajjiputtakā monks did not uphold the monk’s code of conduct. They were subsequently expelled from the Order.

The Second Buddhist Council demonstrated how vital it was for the saṅgha to correct itself; courageous monks with ethical integrity and intellectual rigor were absolutely essential to stop monastics of bad faith from using the Order’s rules against itself, and promoting malicious divisions that could lead to institutional collapse. Still, there would be future disputes, misinterpretations, and misunderstandings. Consequently, the Saṅgha was split into two schools: Sthaviravāda and Mahāsāṃghika. These two schools evolved into 18 schools, which took place between the period of the Second and Third Buddhist Councils.

References

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